tissues

Eicosadienoic acid is a rare, natural n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid found mainly in animal tissues.

Zeaxanthin is a dietary carotenoid that accumulates in the retina (particularly the macula) and has antioxidant activity that may improve obesity, prevent age-related macular degeneration, and protect against nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.

Deferoxamine (Desferrioxamine B) is an iron chelator. Deferoxamine can be used to reduce the accumulation and deposition of iron in tissues. Deferoxamine can improve neurological dysfunction by inhibiting ferroptosis and neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury. It has antioxidant, anti-proliferation and anti-tumor activities, and can induce the production of HIF-1α, apoptosis and autophagy in cancer cells. It can be used to treat acute iron toxicity and COVID-19 related diseases.

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a gut microbiota-dependent metabolite derived from dietary choline, betaine, and carnitine. It induces inflammation by activating the ROS/NLRP3 inflammasome and promotes fibroblast differentiation through the activation of the TGF-β/Smad2 signaling pathway. TMAO is commonly used to induce cardiac fibrosis models.

Taurine (2-Aminoethanesulfonic acid) is an organic acid widely distributed in animal tissues and is one of the constituents of bile acids. Taurine is involved in a number of processes related to energy expenditure and muscle function, and can treat fatigue and muscles as well as improve immune function.

Urethane (Ethyl carbamate; Ethylurethane) is a byproduct formed during the fermentation process of various foods. As an ethyl ester of carbamic acid, it has the ability to inhibit the growth of bacteria, sea urchin eggs, protozoa, and plant tissues, and is commonly used for establishing lung cancer models.

D-Glucuronic acid lactone (Dicurone) is a naturally occurring chemical that is an important structural component of nearly all connective tissues. Glucuronolactone is also found in many plant gums.

Xanthine (Isoxanthine) is a product on the pathway of purine degradation. Xanthine is subsequently converted to uric acid by the action of the Xanthine oxidase enzyme. Xanthine is found in most body tissues and fluids in various organisms. Biologically Xanthine is produced from guanine by cypin (guanine deaminase). Furthermore, Xanthines act as antagonists for adenosine receptors, with selectivity depending on whether there are substitution of alkyl groups.

L-Carnitine (L(-)-Carnitine) is an amino acid derivative. L-Carnitine facilitates long-chain fatty acid entry into mitochondria, delivering substrate for oxidation and subsequent energy production. Fatty acids are utilized as an energy substrate in all tissues except the brain.

L-DOPA (Levodopa) is an orally active metabolic precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It can cross the blood-brain barrier and be converted into dopamine in the brain. L-DOPA exhibits anti-hyperalgesic effects and holds potential in Parkinson’s disease research, and it can also be used to induce Parkinson’s disease models.

Niacin (Nicotinic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin belonging to the vitamin B family, which occurs in many animal and plant tissues, with antihyperlipidemic activity. Niacin is converted to its active form niacinamide, which is a component of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and its phosphate form, NADP.

L-Histidine (L-(-)-Histidine) is a semi-essential amino acid (children should obtain it from food) needed in humans for growth and tissue repair, L-Histidine is important for maintenance of myelin sheaths that protect nerve cells and is metabolized to the neurotransmitter histamine. Histamines play many roles in immunity, gastric secretion, and sexual functions. L-Histidine is also required for blood cell manufacture and protects tissues against damage caused by radiation and heavy metals.

L-Cystine (Cystine Acid) is not considered one of the 20 amino acids, L-Cystine (Cystine Acid) is a sulfur-containing derivative obtained from oxidation of cysteine amino acid thiol side chains. It functions as an antioxidant and protects tissues against radiation and pollution, slowing the aging process. It also aids protein synthesis. L-Cystine (Cystine Acid) is abundant in many proteins of skeletal tissues and skin, and found in insulin and digestive enzymes chromotrypsinogen A, papain, and trypsinogen.

Spermine (Neuridine) is a biogenic polyamine formed from spermidine. It is found in a wide variety of organisms and tissues and is an essential growth factor in some bacteria.

3-Methoxytyramine hydrochloride (3-O-methyl Dopamine hydrochloride) is an inactive metabolite of dopamine which can activate trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). 3-methoxytyramine can be found primarily in human brain and most tissues tissues; and in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (csf) or urine. Within a cell, 3-methoxytyramine is primarily located in the cytoplasm.

Pyruvic acid (Acetylformic acid) is an intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures.

(R)-5-Oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid (D-Pyroglutamic acid) is a cyclic derivative of glutamic acid, physiologically present in mammalian tissues. It releases GABA from the cerebral cortex and exhibits anti-anxiety effects in a simple approach-avoidance conflict situation in rats. In clinical pharmacology experiments, it significantly shortens the plasma half-life of ethanol during acute intoxication.

Creatine (Methylguanidoacetic acid) is an amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as creatinine in the urine. Creatine functions as part of the cell's energy shuttle. The high energy phosphate group of ATP is transferred to creatine to form phosphocreatine in the following reaction: Cr + ATP <-> PCr + ADP. This reaction is reversibly catalyzed by creatine kinase. In the human body, creatine is synthesized mainly in the liver by the use of parts from three different amino acids: arginine, glycine, and methionine. 95% of it is later stored in the skeletal muscles and the rest is stored in the brain, heart, and testes.

Spermidine (N-(3-Aminopropyl)-1,4-diaminobutane) inhibits NOS1 (nNOS). Spermidine binds and precipitates DNA and may be used for purification of DNA binding proteins. Spermidine activates PNK (polynucleotide kinase T4). Spermidine binds to and activates NMDA and has been shown to potentiate NMDA-induced currents in a concentration-dependent manner.

Butanoic acid is an endogenous human metabolite, an endogenous histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. The IC50 of HDAC3, HDAC4 and HDAC1 were 2.4 mM, 4.5 mM and 5.3 mM, respectively. 3-Hydroxybutyric acid has the effects of energy metabolism, neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory, and improvement of insulin resistance.

Hyaluronic acid sodium (Sodium Hyaluronate) is an anionic, nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan distributed widely throughout connective, epithelial, and neural tissues. It is unique among glycosaminoglycans in that it is nonsulfated, forms in the plasma membrane instead of the Golgi, and can be very large, with its molecular weight often reaching the millions. One of the chief components of the extracellular matrix, hyaluronic acid contributes significantly to cell proliferation and migration, and may also be involved in the progression of some malignant tumors.

3-Methyl-2-oxobutanoic acid (2-Oxoisovaleric acid) is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids. 3-Methyl-2-oxobutanoic acid is a neurotoxin, an acidogen, and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. 3-Methyl-2-oxobutanoic acid is a keto-acid, which is a subclass of organic acids. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis.

H-Abu-OH (L-α-amino-n-Butyric acid) , also known as (S)-2-aminobutanoic acid, homoalanine, 2-AABA, ethylglycine, or L-butyrine, is a member of the class of compounds known as L-alpha-amino acids. H-Abu-OH is a non-proteogenic amino acid that can be found in the human kidney, in liver tissues, and in most biofluids or excreta (e.g. feces, breast milk, urine, and blood). Within the cell, H-Abu-OH is primarily located in the cytoplasm. H-Abu-OH is biosynthesized by transaminating oxobutyrate, a metabolite in isoleucine biosynthesis. As a non-proteogenic amino acid, H-Abu-OH can be used by nonribosomal peptide synthases.

D-Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is a water-soluble vitamin ubiquitously found in plants and animal tissues with an antioxidant property. D-Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A (CoA) and a part of the vitamin B2 complex. D-Pantothenic acid is a growth factor and is essential for various metabolic functions, including the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fatty acids. This vitamin is also involved in the synthesis of cholesterol, lipids, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, and hemoglobin.