2a-mannobiose

Cyclosporin A is a natural product and an active fungal metabolite, classified as a cyclic polypeptide immunosuppressant. It binds to cyclophilin and inhibits the activity of calcineurin (IC₅₀ = 7 nM) as well as CD11a CD18 adhesion molecules. It is commonly used to induce uremia models.

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent type of anti-tumor drug, and its main target is DNA. Cyclophosphamide inhibits the proliferation of tumor cells by undergoing alkylation reactions with DNA, interfering with the replication and transcription processes of DNA.

Dexamethasone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist and IL receptor modulator with anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and apoptosis-inducing activities. It inhibits the production of inflammatory miRNA-155 exosomes in macrophages, significantly reduces inflammatory cytokine expression in neutrophils and monocytes, suppresses LPS-induced macrophage inflammation, and induces autophagy. It is commonly used to induce animal models of depression, muscle atrophy, and hypertension, and holds potential in COVID-19 research.

NNK is a nitrosated derivative of nicotine that activates the ERK1 2 and PKCα signaling pathways, induces Bcl2 phosphorylation at Ser70, and activates c-Myc at Thr58 and Ser62, thereby promoting the proliferation and survival of human lung cancer cells, and is commonly used to establish lung cancer mouse models.

Semaxinib (SU5416) is a potent and selective VEGFR2 inhibitor (IC50: 1.23 μM), exhibiting a 20-fold greater selectivity for VEGFR2 over PDGFRβ, with no activity against InsR, EGFR, and FGFR. Semaxinib reversibly inhibits ATP binding to the tyrosine kinase domain of VEGFR2, potentially inhibiting VEGF-stimulated endothelial cell migration and proliferation, thereby reducing tumor microvasculature.

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a gut microbiota-dependent metabolite derived from dietary choline, betaine, and carnitine. It induces inflammation by activating the ROS NLRP3 inflammasome and promotes fibroblast differentiation through the activation of the TGF-β Smad2 signaling pathway. TMAO is commonly used to induce cardiac fibrosis models.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a natural hormone-like substance involved in various physiological functions, including the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles, dilation and constriction of blood vessels, regulation of blood pressure, and modulation of inflammation. It can be used to induce neuropathic pain models.

Oxazolone is a haptenating agent that can induce models of acute or chronic colitis and atopic dermatitis. It activates Th1 Th2 responses, leading to weight loss and diarrhea, and the resulting inflammation can be alleviated by anti-IL-4 antibodies, anti-TNF-α antibodies, or IL-13R2α-Fc fusion proteins. It is also suitable for studying gene expression related to inflammatory bowel disease in zebrafish.

Bleomycin sulfate is a glycopeptide antibiotic with antitumor activity. It is commonly used as a DNA-damaging agent and DNA synthesis inhibitor. It functions by inducing DNA strand breaks without affecting RNA strands. Bleomycin sulfate is widely used in cancer research and for establishing pulmonary fibrosis animal models.

Taurocholic acid (N-Choloyltaurine) is a bile acid involved in fat emulsification, possessing notable biological and immunomodulatory activities. It can inhibit bile duct injury induced by hepatic artery ligation by upregulating VEGF-A expression and protect cholangiocytes from TNF-α-induced damage via a PI3K-mediated pathway, and is commonly used to induce pancreatitis models.

Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) is a natural phorbol ester that acts as an activator of PKC, SphK, and NF-κB, and is commonly used to induce differentiation of THP-1 cells and establish dermatitis models.

Aspirin is an orally active, selective, and irreversible inhibitor of COX-1 and COX-2 with IC₅₀ values of 5 and 210 μg mL, respectively. It induces apoptosis, inhibits NF-κB activation and platelet prostaglandin synthesis, thereby preventing thrombosis. Additionally, it acts as a histone deacetylase inhibitor that upregulates p21, exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-platelet aggregation activities. Aspirin is commonly used to induce gastric ulcer models.

Urethane (Ethyl carbamate; Ethylurethane) is a byproduct formed during the fermentation process of various foods. As an ethyl ester of carbamic acid, it has the ability to inhibit the growth of bacteria, sea urchin eggs, protozoa, and plant tissues, and is commonly used for establishing lung cancer models.

Adenine is a purine-derived nucleobase and one of the four bases of DNA. It is an important chemical component of both DNA and RNA, involved in cellular respiration, the formation of ATP and coenzymes NAD and FAD, as well as protein synthesis. Adenine is commonly used to induce chronic kidney injury models.

Indomethacin is an orally active nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that non-selectively inhibits cyclooxygenase enzymes COX-1 and COX-2, with IC₅₀ values of 18 nM and 26 nM, respectively. It exhibits good blood-brain barrier permeability and shows significant anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-infective activities. Indomethacin is widely used in research related to cancer, inflammation, and viral infections, and is also commonly used to induce gastric ulcer models in animals.

D-Galactose is a naturally occurring hexose and a C-4 epimer of glucose. It can combine with glucose to form lactose and is commonly used to establish animal models of aging.

Cholesterol is the primary sterol in mammals, accounting for approximately 20–25% of the plasma membrane structure. It plays a key role in regulating membrane fluidity, permeability, and protein function. As an endogenous agonist of estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα), cholesterol is widely involved in metabolic regulation and serves as a precursor for the synthesis of hormones and bile acids. It is commonly used in experimental models of hyperlipidemia.

Reserpine (Serpalan) is an alkaloid isolated from the root of Rauwolfia serpentina. As an inhibitor of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), it suppresses the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles, leading to depletion of catecholamines and serotonin in central and peripheral nerve terminals. It has antihypertensive and antipsychotic effects and can be used to induce gastric ulcer and depression models.

L-DOPA (Levodopa) is an orally active metabolic precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It can cross the blood-brain barrier and be converted into dopamine in the brain. L-DOPA exhibits anti-hyperalgesic effects and holds potential in Parkinson’s disease research, and it can also be used to induce Parkinson’s disease models.

Oxidopamine hydrobromide (6-OHDA hydrobromide) is a widely used neurotoxin and an antagonist of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It selectively destroys dopaminergic neurons, promotes COX-2 activation, induces PGE2 synthesis, and stimulates the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. It is commonly used to establish animal models of Parkinson’s disease (PD).

Amiodarone hydrochloride is an anti-anginal agent and a class III antiarrhythmic drug that inhibits potassium channels (including wild-type hERG channels and their tail currents, with an IC₅₀ of approximately 45 nM) as well as voltage-gated sodium channels. This leads to prolonged action potential duration in ventricular and atrial myocytes, resulting in reduced heart rate and vascular resistance. It activates ERK1 2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways in fibroblasts, promoting cell proliferation and myofibroblast differentiation. Amiodarone hydrochloride is widely used in the study of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias and can also be used to establish pulmonary fibrosis animal models.

Yohimbine hydrochloride is a plant-derived alkaloid with alpha-2 adrenergic receptor blocking activity. By blocking presynaptic or postsynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, it promotes the release of norepinephrine and dopamine. It has been used in studies related to mydriasis and erectile dysfunction and is commonly used to induce hypertension models.

Monocrotaline is an 11-membered macrocyclic pyrrolizidine alkaloid extracted from the seeds of Crotalaria plants. It inhibits organic cation transporters OCT-1 and OCT-2, with IC50 values of 36.8 µM and 1.8 mM, respectively. Monocrotaline exhibits antitumor activity and shows certain cytotoxicity against liver cancer cells such as HepG2. It is also commonly used to induce pulmonary arterial hypertension models in rodents.

Fructose is a simple ketose monosaccharide widely found in many plants and commonly combines with glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It can be used to induce hyperuricemia and diabetes models.