learning

SB 202190 (FHPI) is a p38 MAPK inhibitor that inhibits p38α and p38β2 (IC50=50 100 nM) selectively and cell-permeably. SB 202190 has antitumor activity and also induces the differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into cardiomyocytes.

T-448 is a specific, orally active, and irreversible inhibitor of lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1, an H3K4 demethylase) with an IC50 of 22 nM.

GGTI 2147 FA, a selective GGT inhibitor, abolishes bicuculline-induced increase in dendritic spine density in hippocampal experiments and may reduce learning and memory abilities in mice.

BRD4097, a negative control in the HDAC1 2 3 8 assay, is a selective histone deacetylase (HDAC3) inhibitor that can be used to protect b-cells and improve insulin resistance, help promote cognitive function and enhance learning and memory formation.

Octopamine hydrochloride ((±)-p-Octopamine hydrochlorid) is a biogenic monoamine structurally associated with noradrenaline. It can serve as a neurohormone, a neurotransmitter, and a neuromodulator in invertebrates.

Paeoniflorin (Peoniflorin) is a herbal constituent extracted from the root of Paeonia albiflora Pall.

Ginsenoside Rg1 (Panaxoside Rg1) is a class of steroid glycosides, and triterpene saponins found exclusively in the plant genus Panax (ginseng). It improves spatial learning and increase hippocampal synaptophysin level in mice, plus demonstrates estrogen-like activity.

Sunifiram (DM-235) is a potent nootropic agent, known for enhancing cognitive functions, memory, and learning abilities through modulating neurotransmitter activity, particularly via the AMPA receptor.

H-89 is a selective and potent protein kinase A inhibitor (IC50: 48 nM), a candidate cardioprotectant, induces spatial learning impairment in rats, and can be used to study myocardial infarction.

Unifiram is a nootropic agent.1It increases acetylcholine (ACh) release in the rat cerebral cortexin vivoand induces a long-lasting increase in the amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) in the rat hippocampal CA1 region (EC50= 27 nM). It does not bind to serotonin (5-HT), dopamine, muscarinic, nicotinic, adrenergic, glutamate, histamine, opioid, or GABA receptors at 1 μM. Unifiram (0.1 mg kg) improves memory in non-memory-impaired rats in a social learning test.2It also prevents memory deficits induced by the anticholinergic agent scopolamine, nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine, GABABreceptor agonist baclofen, or α2-adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine in the passive avoidance test in mice when administered at a dose of 0.01 mg kg and prevents memory deficits induced by the AMPA kainate glutamate receptor antagonist NBQX at 0.1 mg kg.1 1.Romanelli, M.N., Galeotti, N., Ghelardini, C., et al.Pharmacological characterization of DM232 (unifiram) and DM235 (sunifiram), new potent cognition enhancersCNS Drug Rev.12(1)39-52(2006) 2.Ghelardini, C., Galeotti, N., Gualtieri, F., et al.The novel nootropic compound DM232 (unifiram) ameliorates memory impairment in mice and ratsDrug Develop. Res.56(1)23-32(2002)

Aftin-4, an amyloid forty-two inducer, activates γ-secretase, promoting the generation of amyloid-β-1-42 (Aβ1-42) from amyloid-β protein precursor. Aftin-4(Aftin4) increased Aβ-1-42, but not Aβ-1-40 in mouse hipppocampus, accompanied by learning deficits and mitochondrial ultrastructural changes similar to those found in the brains of patients with AD. Aftin-4(Aftin4) can thus be used to induce a rapid, acute Alzheimer's disease-like toxicity in the rodent brain.

(S)-MCPG ((+)-MCPG) is a class I II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) antagonist that blocks spatial learning and long-term enhancement of the dentate gyrus in vivo in rats, and can be used to study neurological disorders.

delta-Valerobetaine is a precursor of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO).

H3R antagonist 4 (compound 11l) serves as a dual inhibitor of cholinesterases and histamine H3 receptors (H3R), demonstrating IC50 values of 7.04 μM (eeAChE), 9.73 μM (hAChE)(reversible), and 1.09 nM (H3R). It effectively inhibits both self and Cu2+-induced Aβ1-42 aggregation at 95.48% and 88.63%, respectively, and degrades Aβ1-42 protofibrils with 80.16% and 89.30% efficiency under similar conditions. Additionally, H3R antagonist 4 possesses the chelating capability for biometals Cu2+, Zn2+, Al3+, and Fe2+. It significantly reduces tau protein hyperphosphorylation induced by Aβ1-42, inhibits RSL-3 induced apoptosis and ferroptosis in PC12 cells, and shows optimal blood-brain barrier permeability and intestinal absorption characteristics in hCMEC D3 and hPepT1-MDCK cells, respectively. Moreover, the compound improves learning and memory impairments in an Alzheimer's mouse model induced with scopolamine.

Lecozotan (SRA-333) is a potent and selective 5-HT antagonist developed for Alzheimer's disease treatment. This compound significantly increases the release of glutamate and acetylcholine in the hippocampus and dentate gyrus areas upon potassium ion stimulation, exhibiting cognitive enhancement properties. Long-term use of Lecozotan does not lead to tolerance or dysfunction of the 5-HT(1A) receptor, demonstrating its stable pharmacological properties. Additionally, acute administration can improve learning and memory abilities in rats without affecting their anxiety levels or behavior depression.

BRD6688 is a selective HDAC2 inhibitor that acts by enhancing the learning and memory processes

CGP 35348 is a selective antagonist of GABAB receptor (EC50 = 34 μM). CGP 35348 can be used in studies of neuromuscular coordination and spatial learning after neonatal brain damage in albino mice.

AR-R17779 hydrochloride is a potent, selective full agonist of the nAChR, demonstrating K i values of 92 nM for the α7 subtype and 16,000 nM for the α4β2 subtype. It is noted for its ability to enhance learning and memory in rats, suggesting potential therapeutic applications. Additionally, this compound exhibits anxiolytic properties and can mitigate inflammation by activating anti-inflammatory cholinergic (vagal) pathways [1] [2] [4].

DL-AP7, a competitive NMDA antagonist and anticonvulsant, blocks NMDA-induced convulsions and impairs learning performance in mice during a passive avoidance task [1].

Amyloid-β (1-42) (Aβ42) is a neurotoxic 42-amino acid protein fragment found in amyloid plaques in postmortem cerebral cortex from patients with Alzheimer's disease.1,2,3Aggregation of Aβ42 results in the formation of neurotoxic fibrils or globular oligomers.1Aβ42 accumulates in the brain of many transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and, in many models, the onset of amyloid deposition positively correlates with deficits in spatial learning and memory.4 1.Wolfe, M.S.Therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's diseaseNat. Rev. Drug Discov.1(11)859-866(2002) 2.Iwatsubo, T., Odaka, A., Suzuki, N., et al.Visualization of Aβ42(43) and Aβ40 in senile plaques with end-specific Aβ monoclonals: Evidence that an initially deposited species is Aβ42(43)Neuron13(1)45-53(1994) 3.Hardy, J.A., and Higgins, G.A.Alzheimer's disease: The amyloid cascade hypothesisScience256(5054)184-185(1992) 4.Jankowsky, J.L., and Zheng, H.Practical considerations for choosing a mouse model of Alzheimer's diseaseMol. Neurodegener.12(1)89(2017)

Amyloid-β (25-35) (Aβ (25-35)) is an 11-residue fragment of the Aβ protein that retains the physical and biological characteristics of the full length peptide. It forms fibrils that react to thioflavin T and Congo red and are organized in a cross-β arrangement of β-strands similar to Aβ (1-40) and Aβ (1-42) fibrils. Aggregated Aβ (25-35) decreases the viability of rat adrenal PC12 cells. It also decreases the viability of primary rat cortical neurons at concentrations ranging from 1 nM to 30 μM. In vivo, intracerebral injection of Aβ (25-35) (20 nmol) in rats induces lesions of neuronal and tissue loss. Aggregated Aβ (25-35) administered intracerebroventricularly to rats induces learning and memory impairments in the Y-maze, novel object recognition, and contextual fear conditioning tests.

Uridine-3'-monophosphate is a nucleoside used in the biochemical synthesis of ribothymidine-3'-phosphate. It has been used as a bioavailable source of uridine in research studies designed to enhance learning and memory.

PF-04449613 is a phosphodiesterase 9A (PDE9A) inhibitor (IC50= 22 nM).1It is selective for PDE9A over PDE1C (IC50= >1,000 nM), as well as over a variety of other PDEs, inhibiting PDE2-8, -10, and -11 activity by less than 30% in a panel of enzymes, ion channels, and transporters at 1 μM but does inhibit the human dopamine transporter (DAT; Ki= 293 nM). PF-04449613 (0.1-100 mg kg, s.c.) increases cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of cyclic GMP (cGMP) in rats. Subcutaneous administration of PF-04449613 (10 mg kg) increases the rate of dendritic spine formation and elimination in mouse primary motor cortex pyramidal neuronsin vivo.2It increases the average running speed of mice in an accelerating rotarod task, indicating improved motor learning, at the same dose. 1.Claffey, M.M., Helal, C.J., Verhoest, P.R., et al.Application of structure-based drug design and parallel chemistry to identify selective, brain penetrant, in vivo active phosphodiesterase 9A inhibitorsJ. Med. Chem.55(21)9055-9068(2012) 2.Lai, B., Li, M., Hu, A., et al.The phosphodiesterase 9 inhibitor PF-04449613 promotes dendritic spine formation and performance improvement after motor learningDev. Neurobiol.78(9)859-872(2018)

Betamethasone 21-phosphate is a synthetic glucocorticoid.1It prevents increases in macrophage and eosinophil numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and decreases in blood leukocyte numbers in a guinea pig model of parainfluenza-3 viral infection when administered at a dose of 8 mg/kg but does not prevent airway hyperresponsiveness after infection.2Betamethasone 21-phosphate inhibits cell infiltration into the aqueous humor in a rat model of endotoxin-induced uveitis when administered topically or subcutaneously at doses of 0.01-1% or 1 mg/kg, respectively.3It increases maximal lung pressure volume curves in fetal sheep when administered to pregnant ewes at 0.75 gestation at doses of 80 and 170 μg/kg.1Betamethasone 21-phosphate increases body weight, impairs learning and memory, increases anxiolytic behavior, and reduces hippocampal neurogenesis in CD-1 mice but reduces body weight and increases neurogenesis with no effect on anxiety in high-anxiety DBA/2 mice when administered at a dose of approximately 25 mg/kg per day in the drinking water for seven weeks.4Formulations containing betamethasone 12-phosphate and betamethasone acetate have been used in the treatment of severe allergic conditions and a variety of immune-related conditions. 1.Loehle, M., Schwab, M., Kadner, S., et al.Dose-response effects of betamethasone on maturation of the fetal sheep lungAm. J. Obstet. Gynecol.202(2)186.e181-186.e187(2010) 2.Leusink-Muis, A., Ten Broeke, R., Folkerts, G., et al.Betamethasone prevents virus-induced airway inflammation but not airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigsClin. Exp. Allergy29(Suppl. 2)82-85(1999) 3.Tsuji, F., Sawa, K., Kato, M., et al.The effects of betamethasone derivatives on endotoxin-induced uveitis in ratExp. Eye Res.64(1)31-36(1997) 4.Aiello, R., Crupi, R., Leo, A., et al.Long-term betamethasone 21-phosphate disodium treatment has distinct effects in CD1 and DBA/2 mice on animal behavior accompanied by opposite effects on neurogenesisBehav. Brain Res.278155-166(2015)