Others

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), derived from Escherichia coli O55:B5, are essential components of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Composed of lipid A, a core oligosaccharide, and an O-specific polysaccharide, LPS exhibits strong immunogenicity. It activates immune cells via the TLR4 receptor, induces chemotactic cell migration and cytokine secretion, and helps maintain the integrity of the bacterial outer membrane, protecting against bile salts and lipid-based antibiotics. LPS is commonly used to establish inflammatory models, including arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and gastrointestinal disease models.

Kainic acid is an excitatory amino acid receptor agonist (EC50=16.2 μM). Kainic acid is an effective excitatory toxic agent. Kainic acid induces epileptic seizures.

Oxazolone is a haptenating agent that can induce models of acute or chronic colitis and atopic dermatitis. It activates Th1/Th2 responses, leading to weight loss and diarrhea, and the resulting inflammation can be alleviated by anti-IL-4 antibodies, anti-TNF-α antibodies, or IL-13R2α-Fc fusion proteins. It is also suitable for studying gene expression related to inflammatory bowel disease in zebrafish.

Fructose is a simple ketose monosaccharide widely found in many plants and commonly combines with glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It can be used to induce hyperuricemia and diabetes models.

D(+)-Galactosamine hydrochloride is a well-established experimental toxin that induces liver injury primarily by generating free radicals and depleting UTP nucleotides, and it can be used to establish lipopolysaccharide/D-Galactosamine-induced hepatitis or acute liver injury models.

Sodium taurocholate is a biologically active compound that can inhibit bile duct injury induced by hepatic artery ligation by upregulating VEGF-A expression. It also exhibits immunomodulatory effects and can be used to induce pancreatitis models.

Dextran sulfate sodium salt (MW 36,000–50,000) is a medium molecular weight polyanionic dextran derivative with strong intestinal epithelial permeability. It is the most commonly used agent for inducing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) models, effectively inducing both acute and chronic colitis. Its mechanism may involve macrophage dysfunction and gut microbiota dysbiosis. Due to its colonic epithelial toxicity, long-term use can also induce colorectal cancer models.

Chrysene is a high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with strong persistence and carcinogenicity. It is commonly used for establishing liver cancer models.

Thioacetamide (TAA) is an indirect hepatotoxin commonly used to induce experimental liver injury. It is metabolized by CYP2E1 into reactive metabolites that covalently bind to proteins and lipids, leading to oxidative stress and centrilobular necrosis, hepatocyte death, and M1/M2 macrophage-dominated inflammation. TAA is widely used to establish models of chronic liver fibrosis, hepatic encephalopathy, and liver cancer.

Elastase from porcine pancreas is a serine protease derived from the porcine pancreas, consisting of 240 amino acid residues. It has the ability to hydrolyze proteins and peptides, can induce emphysema in hamsters, and is commonly used to establish animal models of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Acifluorfen is a protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) inhibitor herbicide that promotes the accumulation of protoporphyrin IX. It induces liver tumors, liver injury, and cardiac dysfunction in rodents, and causes severe photooxidative damage to pigments and lipids in susceptible plants. It can be used to induce hepatitis and pancreatitis.

N-Nitrosomorpholine is a light-sensitive nitrosamine with strong carcinogenicity in animals and is commonly used to induce liver cancer models.

Potassium oxonate is a uricase inhibitor that suppresses the phosphorylation of 5-FU to 5-fluorouridine-5'-monophosphate and is commonly used to establish hyperuricemia models.

Calcium chloride is often used in cell culture research, such as as a calcium supplement in DMEM medium, and can also be used to prepare synthetic saline solutions.

Penitrem A is an indole-diterpenoid neurotoxic alkaloid produced by *Penicillium* species. As a selective BK channel antagonist, it exhibits antiproliferative and anti-invasive activities against various malignancies, and stimulates the spontaneous release of endogenous glutamate, GABA, and aspartate from cortical synaptosomes. It is commonly used to induce tremor models in animals.

CP-20961 is an effective synthetic non-immunogenic adjuvant that can be used to induce acute and chronic arthritis models.

Noradrenaline tartrate is an effective adrenergic receptor agonist that activates α1, α2, and β1 receptors. It is a precursor of epinephrine and serves as the principal neurotransmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and the diffuse projection system in the brain originating from the locus coeruleus, and can be used to establish cardiomyopathy models.

Glyfosfin is a DNA cross-linking and alkylating agent with anticancer activity and can also be used to induce kidney stone models.

Levodopa sodium (L-DOPA) is the metabolic precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It is orally active, capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier, and is rapidly taken up by dopaminergic neurons in the brain where it is converted into dopamine. It exhibits anti-hyperalgesic effects and is commonly used to induce animal models of Parkinson's disease.

Lithium acetylsalicylate is an orally active, irreversible inhibitor of cyclooxygenases COX-1 and COX-2, with IC₅₀ values of 5 and 210 μg/mL, respectively. It can induce apoptosis, inhibit the activation of NF-κB, and suppress the activity of platelet prostaglandin synthase. It is commonly used to induce gastric ulcer models.

β-Amyloid (1-42), rat/mouse TFA is a 42-amino-acid polypeptide fragment that exhibits neurotoxicity to hippocampal slices and is commonly used to establish Alzheimer's disease models for related research.

(-)-(α)-Kainic Acid (hydrate) is an effective excitotoxic agent that acts as an agonist of ionotropic glutamate receptor subtypes, capable of inducing seizures and commonly used to establish animal models of epilepsy.

κ-Carrageenan is a natural polymer predominantly found in red seaweeds that can serve as an effective carrier to deliver curcumin to cancer cells and induce apoptosis. It can also be used to induce paw swelling models and acts as a potential inflammatory agent that amplifies existing intestinal inflammation.

Okadaic acid ammonium salt is a marine toxin that acts as an inhibitor of protein phosphatases (PP), with the highest affinity for PP2A (IC50 = 0.1–0.3 nM), while also inhibiting PP1, PP3, PP4, and PP5, but not PP2C. By increasing the phosphorylation of various proteins, it functions as a tumor promoter and induces tau protein phosphorylation, commonly used to establish Alzheimer's disease models.