respiration

Mitochondrial respiration-IN-1 hydrobromide (compound 49) is a potent mitochondrial inhibitor (IC50 = 8.8 mg mL) and significantly reduces mitochondrial respiration in platelets [1].

Mitochondrial respiration-IN-3, a fluorine derivative of Dalfopristin, possesses cell membrane permeability and exhibits the capability to inhibit mitochondrial translation in glioblastoma stem cells. This compound is utilized in cancer research [1].

Mitochondrial respiration-IN-2, a fluorine derivative of Virginiamycin M1, inhibits the mitochondrial translation of glioblastoma stem cells [1].

Adenine is a purine-derived nucleobase and one of the four bases of DNA. It is an important chemical component of both DNA and RNA, involved in cellular respiration, the formation of ATP and coenzymes NAD and FAD, as well as protein synthesis. Adenine is commonly used to induce chronic kidney injury models.

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is a natural product, an endogenous human metabolite, and a micronutrient. Riboflavin is essential for the formation of two major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide. Riboflavin is involved in energy metabolism, cellular respiration, and antibody production, as well as normal growth and development.

Diuron is an orally active benzoylurea herbicide against annual, perennial broadleaf weeds, and grass weeds. Diuron inhibits the production of ATP and NADH, thereby impairing plant photosynthesis, and also increases ROS production and promotes DMBA BBN-induced bladder cancer development.

Azoxystrobin (Bankit) is a broad-spectrum fungicide. Azoxystrobin induces ROS production, cell apoptosis and mitochondrial respiration by blocking electron transfer between cytochromes b and c1.

Boscalid is a broad-spectrum carboxamide fungicide that inhibits fungal respiration by binding to the ubiquinone site of mitochondrial complex II succinate dehydrogenase.1It suppresses mycelial growth ofS. minorby 87 to 100% and ofS. sclerotiorumby 77 to 100% when used at a concentration of 1 μg ml.2In field studies, boscalid applied at 5.6 μg cm2provides 55.5 and 30.4% disease control for lettuce drop caused byS. minorandS. sclerotiorum, respectively. It decreases cell viability of mouse primary cortical neurons following long-term exposure but is not cytotoxic (LC50= >100 μM for acute and continuous exposure). Formulations containing boscalid have been used in agriculture to prevent fungal growth on crops. 1.Wang, Y., Duan, Y., Wang, J., et al.A new point mutation in the iron-sulfur subunit of succinate dehydrogenase confers resistance to boscalid in Sclerotinia sclerotiorumMol. Plant Pathol.16(7)653-661(2015) 2.Matheron, M.E., and Porchas, M.Activity of boscalid, fenhexamid, fluazinam, fludioxonil, and vinclozolin on growth of Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum and development of lettuce dropPlant Dis.88(6)665-668(2004)

(S)-Malic acid ((S)-2-Hydroxysuccinic acid) is a tart-tasting organic dicarboxylic acid found in many sour foods, such as apples, and contributes to the sourness of green apples and tartness of wine, although its concentration decreases with fruit ripeness (wikipedia). In its ionized form, it is called malate, an intermediate in the TCA cycle alongside fumarate, and can be formed from pyruvate through anaplerotic reactions. In humans, malic acid is derived from food sources and synthesized in the body via the citric acid cycle in mitochondria, playing a crucial role in energy production under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate, providing reducing equivalents via the malate-aspartate redox shuttle, while during anaerobic conditions, its simultaneous reduction to succinate and oxidation to oxaloacetate removes excess reducing equivalents, reversing hypoxia's inhibition of glycolysis and energy production. Studies on rats have shown that tissue malate depletes following exhaustive physical activity, suggesting that malic acid deficiency may cause physical exhaustion. Administering malic acid to rats has been shown to elevate mitochondrial malate, increasing mitochondrial respiration and energy production.

Adenine hydrochloride is a purine nucleobase and a chemical component of DNA and RNA. It is involved in cellular respiration, protein synthesis, and plays an important role in energy metabolism through high-energy molecules such as ATP, NAD, and FAD. It can be used to induce hyperuricemia and chronic kidney injury models.

Adenine hemisulfate is a purine-based nucleobase and an essential chemical component of DNA and RNA. It plays a key role in cellular respiration, the formation of ATP and coenzymes such as NAD and FAD, as well as in protein synthesis. It is commonly used to induce animal models of chronic liver and kidney injury and hyperuricemia.

1-Hexanol (hexan-1-ol) is a natural product.1-Hexanol, a primary alcohol, is a surfactant that can be employed in industrial processes to enhance interfacial properties[1]. 1-Hexanol uncouples mitochondrial respiration by a non-protonophoric mechanism[2].

4,5-Dimethylthiazole exhibits inhibitory activity against mitochondrial respiration in liver cells and can be used in biochemical experiments and drug synthesis.

PZL-A, an activator of mtDNA synthesis, restored the function and activity of the most common POLγ mutant variant and activated mtDNA synthesis in the cells of pediatric patients with fatal diseases, thereby enhancing the oxidative phosphorylation mechanism and the biogenesis of cellular respiration, and can be used to treat progressive diseases associated with mtDNA depletion.

CCI-006, a selective inhibitor and chemosensitizer for MLL-rearranged leukemia cells, disrupts mitochondrial respiration. This action leads to irreversible mitochondrial depolarization and triggers a pro-apoptotic unfolded protein response in specific MLL-r leukemia cells.

Levocarnitine propionate (L-Propionylcarnitine) is a propionyl-coenzyme A (Pro-CoA) derivative with anti-ischemic effects and high affinity for muscle L-carnitine transferase. Levocarnitine propionate enhances substrate oxidation and mitochondrial respiration in the heart of diabetic rats, reduces gastric ulcer area, induces mucosal recovery, and can be used to study acute respiratory distress syndrome and chronic gastric ulcers in Alzheimer's disease.

Protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) is a tetrapyrrole that is a metabolic precursor of heme, cytochrome c, and chlorophyll. Protoporphyrin IX has been shown to improve liver function, promote cellular tissue respiration, improve protein and glucose metabolism, and resist complement binding.

Rivanicline hemioxalate, also known as RJR-2403 hemioxalate or (E)-Metanicotine hemioxalate, is a chemical compound acting as a neuronal nicotinic receptor agonist with pronounced selectivity for the α4β2 receptor subtype, showing over 1,000-fold greater selectivity for this subtype (Ki=26 nM) compared to α7 receptors (Ki=3.6 μM). Its in vitro studies demonstrate no significant activation of nAChRs in PC12 cells, muscle type nAChRs, or muscarinic receptors at concentrations up to 1 mM. Furthermore, Rivanicline displayed less than one-tenth the potency of nicotine in inducing ileum contraction, with substantially lower efficacy, and failed to antagonize nicotine-induced stimulation of muscle or ganglionic nAChR functions, with an IC50 value greater than 1 mM. Chronic exposure to Rivanicline at 10 microM led to up-regulation of high-affinity nAChRs in M10 cells, mimicking effects observed with nicotine. In vivo studies revealed that Rivanicline significantly reversed scopolamine-induced amnesia and improved working and reference memory in a rat model, while being 15 to 30 times less potent than nicotine in affecting body temperature, respiration, and other physiological responses. Metanicitone's potency was approximately five times lower than nicotine in tail-flick tests following subcutaneous administration, yet slightly more potent upon central administration.

Riboflavin phosphate sodium (FMN) is the sodium phosphate form of riboflavin, a water-soluble and essential micronutrient that is the primary growth promoter of the naturally occurring vitamin B complex. Riboflavin phosphate sodium is converted into 2 coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which produce energy by aiding in the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, and are required for red blood cell formation and respiration, antibody production, and regulation of growth and reproduction in the body.

Mito-apocynin (C11) is a mitochondria-targeting antioxidant that works by targeting and neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during cellular respiration. Triphenylphosphonium bromide has been found to be effective in preventing mitochondrial dysfunction, which is a major cause of the aging process and various diseases. It has anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and antioxidant activities.

Vitamin B15 is a natural product and can used be as an agent stimulating cellular respiration, and is an immune-correcting agent.

Aumitin, a diaminopyrimidine-based autophagy inhibitor, dose-dependently inhibits starvation- and rapamycin-induced autophagy with IC50s of 0.12 μM and 0.24 μM, respectively [1], and also inhibits mitochondrial respiration by targeting complex I.

Penthiopyrad (MTF-753) shows a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and suppresses fungal respiration. Penthiopyrad can be used in studies about foliar and soil-borne plant diseases.

Trifluralin (Treflan) is an agricultural herbicide with mild toxicity. Trifluralin is a novel pollutant that can interfere with mitochondrial respiration.